Since Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the West’s perception of China has shifted significantly, especially in Europe. China is no longer viewed as only an economic security threat but also as a hard security challenge. Prior to 2022, China was primarily considered an economic threat, or at most a “soft” security issue. This meant that China could undermine Europe’s hard security indirectly, for example, by acquiring ownership of infrastructure such as ports and